manufacturing, this activity could have serious welfare effects because of the toxicity of the raw materials involved. Surface mining of coal disturbs large areas of land and the productivity of reclaimed mine sites is often less than that of the undistrubed land. Disposal of high-level, transuranic, and low-level nuclear waste and uranium milling residues is likely to remove the affected land from any future use. Materials mining for solar cells and construction of SPS rectennas and launch sites would likely remove large areas of land from other uses and require the relocation of roads and services. Electromagnetic disturbance of electronic systems as far as 100 km from an SPS rectenna site due to microwave interference could comprise a significant welfare effect. The severity of the electromagnetic interference would depend on the types of electronic systems impacted and their amenability to mitigating strategies that do not cause unacceptable operational compromises. Radio and optical astronomy might also be affected by the SPS. Ecosystems within and near SPS rectenna sites would be exposed to chronic microwave radiation. While there is limited information on the effects of such exposure, the mortality, reproduction, and behavior of beneficial insects such as bees could be altered, possibly disturbing pollination of food crops. Noise levels from SPS heavylift launch vehicles would be likely to exceed recommended EPA 24-hour average noise standards and elevate noise levels in communities as far away as 31 km. Launches would occur frequently causing welfare effects such as annoyance and interference with other activities. Land use changes and reduced property values would also be possible. Some attention was given to alteration in the severity of welfare effects due to increased penetration of the various technologies. Penetration level will not in general become a significant factor causing severe welfare effects for most technologies until the spatial distance between sites becomes small. It is difficult to project such interactions in the absence of detailed siting information. However, it is rather safe to conclude that the climatic effects due to CO2 become more likely with increased coal combustion. Also, there is the increased possibility of environmental welfare effects due to deployment of 60 SPS satellite-rectenna units. The possibilities of atmospheric alterations affecting communications systems and that increased levels of microwave radiation may affect crops and beneficial insects are not well-understood at the present time. The environmental welfare effect most likely to have catastrophic consequences involves CO2 buildup leading to global warming. Electricity generation from coal in the United States constituted only 5% of global CO2 produced by man in 1977. The significance of this effect and all other environmental welfare effects must be kept in perspective and not overemphasized when comparing alternative technologies for producing electricity on a national level. It is recognized that there are potentially severe environmental welfare effects on a local/regional scale, but these are beyond the scope of the present study since they depend on specific siting information.
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