DOE/ER —0021/2 Vol. 2 of 2 Preliminary Environmental Assessment for the Satellite Power System (SPS) Volume 2 Detailed Assessment October 1978 U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Research Satellite Power System Project Office DOE/NASA SATELLITE POWER SYSTEM Concept Development and Evaluation Program
Available from: National Technical Information Service (NTIS) U.S. Department of Commerce 5285 Port Royal Road Springfield, Virginia 22161 Price: Printed copy: $9.00 Microfiche: $3.00
DOE/ER—0021/2 Vol. 2 of 2 Dist. Category UC-11,41,60, 63, 63 a, b, c, e, 64, 66e, 95f, 97c Preliminary Environmental Assessment for the Satellite Power System (SPS) Volume 2 Detailed Assessment October 1978 U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Research Satellite Power System Project Office Washington, D.C. 20545 DOE/NASA SATELLITE POWER SYSTEM Concept Development and Evaluation Program
FOREWORD The Department of Energy is considering several options for generating electrical power to meet future energy needs. The satellite power system (SPS), one of these options, would collect solar energy through a system of orbiting satellites, convert the energy to microwaves, and transmit the microwave energy via extremely directive transmitting antennas to large receiving antennas (rectennas) located on the earth. Present conceptual designs provide for microwave transmission at a frequency of 2.45 gigahertz and generation of 5 to 10 gigawatts-electric at each rectenna. The impact of the SPS microwave transmission on the environment, as well as impacts related to other elements of the total satellite power system, are being determined by several research efforts funded by the Department of Energy. The goal of these programs is to advance the state of knowledge by the year 1980 to the point where the probability and severity of SPS impacts can be assessed. This two-volume document presents a preliminary evaluation of SPS environmental impacts and recommends impact-related research. More detailed and extensive assessments will be made of effects on the health and safety of the public and occupationally involved personnel, ecosystems, the upper and lower atmosphere, and communications systems. If the 1980 assessments indicate that the impacts are acceptable or that feasible mitigating strategies can be implemented, and if other related assessments (the impact on society and a competitive comparison of the SPS with other energy alternatives) are favorable, a decision may be made to develop SPS-related technologies. CONTRIBUTORS S.L. Halverson Argonne National Laboratory, Director, Environmental Assessment D.M. Rote Argonne National Laboratory, Director, Task III J.L. Lee Argonne National Laboratory K.L. Brubaker Argonne National Laboratory R.R. Cirillo Argonne National Laboratory S.W. Ballou Argonne National Laboratory S.D. Parris Argonne National Laboratory D.F. Cahill U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Director, Task I J. Allis U.S. Environmental Protection Agency K. Davis Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Director, Task IV C.M. Rush Institute for Telecommunication Sciences, Director, Task IV E. Morrison Institute for Telecommunication Sciences W. Grant Institute for Telecommunication Sciences M. White Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Director, Task II
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PURPOSE .............................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................... 1 1 HEALTH AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF MICROWAVE RADIATION ............. 3 1.1 Scope....................................................... 4 1.2 Methodology ................................................. 4 1.2.1 Effects on Public and Workers.......................... 4 1.2.2 Effects on Ecosystems ................................ 5 1.3 Cause and Effect Relationships............................... 5 1.4 State of Knowledge........................................... 7 1.5 Research Plan and Alternatives............................... 8 1.6 Preliminary Assessment....................................... 9 1.6.1 Effects on Public Health and Safety............ . . . . 9 1.6.2 Effects on the Health and Safety of the Terrestrial Worker......................................... 10 1.6.3 Effects on the Health and Safety of Space Workers. ... 10 1.6.4 Effects on Ecosystems................................ 13 1.7 Conclusions and Recommendations............................. 13 1.7.1 Public and Occupational Personnel....................... 17 1.7.2 Ecosystems............................................ 17 1.8 Reference Documents ......................................... 18 Appendix 1A. Microwave Health and Ecological Effects Program Plan . . 21 2 OTHER EFFECTS ON HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT........................ 25 2.1 Scope....................................................... 26 2.2 Methodology................................................. 26 2.3 Cause and Effect Relationships............................... 27 2.4 State of Knowledge........................................... 30 2.5 Research Plan and Alternatives............................... 30 2.6 Preliminary Assessment....................................... 30 2.6.1 Effects on the Public.................................. 34 2.6.1.1 Incremental Effects of Conventional Processes.................................... 34 2.6.1.2 Unconventional Effects on Public Health and Safety........................................ 37 2.6.2 Effects on Terrestrial Workers ........................ 47 2.6.2.1 Incremental Effects of Conventional Processes.................................... 47 2.6.2.2 Unconventional Effects....................... 47 2.6.3 Effects on Space Workers.............................. 49 2.6.3.1 Weightlessness............................... 49 2.6.3.2 Life Support................................. 51 2.6.3.3 Radiation ................................... 52 2.6.4 Ecological Effects .................................... 54 2.7 Conclusions and Recommendations............................. 54 2.7.1 Effects on the Public.................................. 54 2.7.2 Effects on Terrestrial Workers ........................ 58 2.7.3 Effects on Space Workers.............................. 58
2.7.4 Ecological Effects .................................... 59 2.8 Reference Documents.......................................... 59 Appendix 2A»Nonmicrowave Health and Safety Effects Research Program. 63 3 EFFECTS ON THE ATMOSPHERE......................................... 67 3.1 Scope..................................................... 68 3.2 Methodology................................................. 71 3.3 Cause and Effect Relationships............................... 72 3.4 State of Knowledge............................. 72 3.4.1 Upper Atmosphere, Nonmicrowave Effects ................ 72 3.4.1.1 Vehicle Effluent Effects....................... 73 3.4.1.2 Other Effects ................................ 81 3.4.2 Troposphere - Microwave Related Effects................ 85 3.4.3 Stratosphere, Nonmicrowave Effects ..................... 86 3.5 Research Plan and Alternatives............................... 92 3.6 Conclusions and Recommendations............................. 92 3.6.1 Upper Atmospheric, Nonmicrowave Effects................ 92 3.6.2 Troposphere - Microwave Related Effects................ 97 3.6.3 Stratosphere and Mesosphere, Nonmicrowave Effects. . . . 100 3.7 References...................................................... 102 Appendix 3A. Highlights of August 23-28, 1978, Workshop on Atmospheric Effects of Rectenna Operation.................105 3A.1 Rectenna Waste Heat Effects...............................106 3A.2 Microwave Propagation Effects.............................107 Appendix 3B, Atmospheric Effects Program Plan........................ 113 4 EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS .................................. 121 4.1 Electromagnetic Compatibility ................................ 122 4.1.1 Scope....................................................122 4.1.2 Methodology..............................................122 4.1.3 Cause and Effect Relationships ....................... 124 4.1.4 State of Knowledge......................................127 4.1.5 Research Plan and Alternatives..........................130 4.1.6 Preliminary Assessment..................................135 4.1.6.1 Range Instrumentation ........................ 143 4.1.6.2 Operational Systems .......................... 145 4.1.7 Conclusions and Recommendations..........................146 4.1.8 Reference Documents......................................148 4.2 Ionospheric Heating and Launch Vehicle Effluent Effects .... 149 4.2.1 Background..............................................149 4.2.2 Methodology..............................................150 4 . 2.2.1 Ionosphere Heating.............................. 150 4 .2.2.2 Vehicle Effluent Effects........................ 151 4.2.3 Cause and Effect Relationships..........................153 4.2.3.1 Ionosphere Heating.............................. 154 4.2.3.2 Vehicle Effluent Effects........................ 155 4.2.4 State of Knowledge......................................155 4.2.4.1 Ionosphere Heating.............................. 155 4.2.4.2 Vehicle Effluent Effects........................ 156
4.2.5 Research Plans and Alternatives.......................... 156 4.2.5.1 Ionosphere Heating.............................. 156 4.2.5.2 Vehicle Effluent Effects........................157 4.2.6 Preliminary Assessment.................................. 157 4.2.6.1 Ionosphere Heating.............................. 157 4.2.6.2 Vehicle Effluent Effects........................159 4.2.7 Conclusions and Recommendations.......................... 160 4 . 2.7.1 Ionosphere Heating.............................. 160 4 .2.7.2 Vehicle Effluent Effects.......................160 4.2.8 Reference Documents................ 161 Appendix 4A. Electromagnet ic Compatibility Evaluation Plan............ 163 Appendix 4B. Ionospheric Heating Program Plan Outline................ 167
LIST OF TABLES No. Page 1.1 Ranges and Limits of Power Density for Microwave Exposure. . . 9 1.2 Potential Effects of SPS MPTS on Public Health.......... 11 1.3 Potential Effect of the SPS MPTS on Occupational Health. ... 12 1.4 Effects of the SPS MPTS on the Ecology.................. 14 2.1 State of Knowledge of SPS Effects Exclusive of Microwave Effects............................................... 31 2.2 Incremental Material Requirements of SPS System............... 35 2.3 Effects of SPS Deployment..................................... 36 2.4 Exposure Limits for Selected Rocket Engine Combustion Products for Man..................................... 40 2.5 Suggested Maximum Allowable Concentrations of Propellants in Water............................................. 42 2.6 Effects of Sonic Boom....................................... 45 2.7 Space Shuttle Sonic Boom Generation........................... 46 2.8 Distributions of Occupational Illness and Injury ............. 48 2.9 Summary of SPS Nonmicrowave Health and Safety Effects......... 55 2A.1 Research Program for Nonmicrowave Effects of SPS............. 64 3.1 Distribution of Exhaust Products in the Various Regions of the Atmosphere............................. 88 3.2 Water Perturbation Ratio between 16 and 80 km................ 89 3.3 Estimated Nitric Oxide Injection Rates and Perturbation Ratios...................................................... 91 4.1 List of Propagation - Meteorology Parameters ................ 131 4.2 Selected Site Distances from Mojave Rectenna ................ 137 4.3 SPS Incident Power at Mojave Sites.............................137 4.4 Atmosphere Anomaly - Turbulence Power Densities.................138 4.5 Scatter Power Densities - Average Rain Conditions...............139 4.6 Scatter Power Densities - Extreme Rain Conditions...............139 4.7 Induced Functional-Degradation Summary - Mojave Area ........ 142 4.8 Potential Systems Impact of SPS Operation.......................152 4B.1 Simulation of Telecommunications Effects Resulting from SPS Operation........................................ 168 4B. 2 Experimental Studies of the Physics of Ionospheric Heating . . 169 4B.3 Studies of the Theory of Ionospheric Heating ................ 170 4B.4 SPS Impact on the Pilot and Power Beams.........................172 4B.5 Development of Advanced Ground-Based Heater Facilities .... 172
1.1 Cause and Effect Relationship for Microwave Effect on Health and Ecosystems.................................. 6 1A.1 Microwave Health and Ecological Effects Program Plan.............22 2.1 Cause and Effect Relationships for SPS Terrestrial Operations................................................ 28 2.2 Variation of Overall Sound Pressure Level with Distance from Launch Site..........................................43 2A.1 Schedule of Research Tasks for Nonmicrowave Health and Safety Effects............................................ 66 3.1 Regions of the Atmosphere.......................................69 3.2 Summary of Some Potential Atmospheric Effects Caused by Rocket Exhaust .................................. ..... 70 3.3 Cause and Effect Relationships Due to the Impact of SPS on the Atmosphere ........................................ 74 3.4 Geometry of the Skylab Launch and Ray Paths to ATS-3 and ATS-5 from Several Sites in North America............ 76 3.5 Total Electron Content Data Obtained from the Sagamore Hill Radio Observatory in Hamilton, Mass., Looking Towards the Geostationary Satellite ATS-3 on 14 May 1973.......................................................... 77 3.6 Schematic Diagram of Global Atmospheric Circuit that Indicates Possible Mechanisms for Ionizing Radiation to Influence Thunderstorm Activity........................ 80 3.7 Pictorial Representation of the Plasmasphere, Magnetosphere, and Principal Electric Current Systems............ 82 4.1 SPS Radio Frequency and Electromagnetic Interference............123 4.2 Effects of the SPS MPTS on Electromagnetically Sensitive Systems........................................... 125 4.3 General Spectrum Assignment Densities ........................ 132 4.4 Spectral Distribution for a Chirp Modulated Carrier ........... 134 4.5 Interferer Degradation Exemplary Trends ....................... 134 4.6 Critical Mojave Rectenna Site ................................ 135 4.7 SPS Transmitting Antenna Pattern................................ 136 4.8 Ionospheric Charge Density Distributions........................ 149 4.9 Effect of the SPS MPTS on Ionosphere and its Consequences ............................................... 153 4.10 Results of July 12, 1978, Ionospheric Heating Experiment at Arecibo Observatory................................... 158 4A.1 Electromagnetic Compatibility Evaluation Tasks - Phase I. . . . 165 4A.2 Electromagnetic Compatibility Evaluation Tasks - Phase II . . . 166
PURPOSE Volume II provides a preliminary assessment of the impact of the Satellite Power System (SPS) on the environment in a technically detailed format more suitable for peer review than the executive summary of Vol. I. It serves to integrate and assimilate information that has appeared in documents referenced herein and to focus on issues that are purely environmental. It discloses the state-of-knowledge as perceived from recently completed DOE- sponsored studies and defines prospective research and study programs that can advance the state-of-knowledge and provide an expanded data base for use in an assessment planned for 1980. Alternatives for research that may be implemented in order to achieve this advancement are also discussed in order that a plan can be selected which will be consistent with the fiscal and time constraints on the SPS Environmental Assessment Program. INTRODUCTION Because prospective research studies to evaluate the environmental impact of the SPS have only recently been initiated or are in the planning stage, very few new data are available to form the basis for the preliminary assessment. Therefore, in most cases, this assessment relies on the retrospective interpretation of data that form the present body of knowledge. In several areas the data bases are large but for various reasons are believed to be inadequate for the purposes of making an impact assessment, while in other task areas the data bases are virtually nonexistent; therefore, the preliminary assessment must be made under conditions of uncertainty and with explicit caveats. Several unofficial documents are already in existence purporting to be SPS environmental impact assessments, which address environmental issues very lightly and tend to focus on issues that are not directly environmental in nature but rather are technological, societal, and comparative issues. Although it will be ultimately necessary to consider these other issues in making the final overall impact assessment, they will be discussed here only to the extent that they are relevant to the environmental assessment.
1 HEALTH AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF MICROWAVE RADIATION
1.1 SCOPE The effects of microwave radiation emmanating from the SPS on the following are considered in this section. • General public outside exclusion zone for the rectifying antenna (rectenna) and in transit through the zone, • Terrestrial workers involved in maintenance or operations at the rectenna site, • Space workers involved in maintenance or operation of the SPS, • Ecosystems both inside and outside the exclusion zone for the rectenna. 1.2 METHODOLOGY 1.2.1 Effects on Public and Workers Although a sizeable effort has been expended on investigating the biological effects of microwave radiation, no firm conclusions can yet be drawn concerning the effects of exposure to relatively low levels. Results obtained so far are difficult to interpret in terms of hazards, and in many cases conflicting results have been obtained from similar experiments. The existing data base, however inadequate, will be used as a starting point to develop the information necessary for assessing the impact of the SPS microwave power transmission system (MPTS). A combination of two types of studies must be used to arrive at an assessment of impacts. One, which we will call prospective, will be directed toward investigating research areas where no data currently exist and which pose serious questions about the advisability of using a microwave beam for transmission of energy from space. Principal among these is the effect of continuous exposure of the population to low levels of 2.45 GHz radiation. Several long-term studies using experimental animals will be the primary determinants in answering this question, but much of this work cannot be completed within the period from FY1978-80. However, short-term prospective studies will address several questions that can be answered in this time span. The other type of study, which we will call retrospective, will address effects already documented in the literature. A major effort will
be made to validate the apparently credible, published reports of potential adverse health effects of 2.45 GHz radiation. In addition, effects reported at certain other frequencies should be investigated to determine whether or not they will occur at 2.45 GHz. The intent behind the retrospective studies is to determine the validity of reports that are germane to the SPS environmental assessment program. The information developed from this work will also be used in the design of the long-term experiments to be conducted after 1980. 1.2.2 Effects on Ecosystems Only rarely has microwave effects research with direct ecological implications been performed and never has the impact of microwaves on an entire ecosystem been attempted. Nevertheless, in a cursory review of the literature in this area, several reports have been identified which may have a bearing on the SPS program (Ref. 1.8.1). These studies imply that, at least at very high levels of exposure to microwaves, some plants have increased susceptibility to drought and decreased productivity; avian species have increased lethality, decreased reproductive success and alterations in normal behavior. However, data for the ecological effects of continuous, low level exposures expected to be associated with SPS are nonexistent. As a first step, a comprehensive review and critical interpretation of the literature on the ecological effects of microwaves will be conducted. A computer-retrievable information system will be developed which will allow the identification of critical ecological information gaps. Ecological research protocols that address these gaps and are specific to SPS needs will be formulated during FY 1978-80. Particular emphasis will be on the relationship between rectenna operation and ecosystems. 1.3 CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS The cause and effect relationships for the microwave biological effects are shown in Fig. 1.1. Each effect is given a probability (P) rating and an issue severity (S) rating depending upon the expected probability of occurrence and the criticality of the effect as an SPS issue, i.e., how important the issue is to the SPS decision-making processes, if required mitigating strategies cannot be implemented.
Fig. 1.1. Cause and Effect Relationship for Microwave Effect on Health and Ecosystems
1.4 STATE OF KNOWLEDGE The presence of microwave radiation in the environment was negligible prior to World War II. Since then, electromagnetic emissions from microwave frequency generators for communications, radio-navigation, military applications, diathermy, food ovens, and other industrial purposes have increased dramatically. In 1970, the First Task Force on Research Planning in Environmental Health Science (NIEHS, 1970) conservatively estimated that nearly one-half of our population lived in a measurable microwave environment. Since 1970, the number of microwave sources has increased as new and broader domestic, medical, industrial and military applications have been found. However, U.S. research programs to determine and evaluate biologic effects of nonionizing radiation have not as yet generated a data base upon which quantitatively sound and scientifically valid population exposure standards for microwave radiation (Ref. 1.8.3) can be established. Research during the past five years has led to significant advances, both in research methodology and in knowledge of the effects of microwave radiation on living systems. This work has indicated that some biological systems exhibit responses to microwave radiation at intensities that were previously considered to be too low to produce detectable alterations, i.e., in the range of 1-10 mW/cm^ (Ref. 1.8.12-15). At frequencies below 10 GHz, the full extent to which perturbations impact on living systems has not been determined nor are the conditions necessary to produce an observed alteration well defined. Even less is known about biological effects of microwaves at frequencies greater than 10 GHz. Major difficulties in reliably evaluating consequences of exposure of humans to microwaves are the paucity of human data, difficulty in establishing dose distribution within a body, insufficiency of valid data on experimental animals, and the usual problems of extrapolating data from animals to humans. The current lack of understanding of basic mechanisms of how low-intensity fields interact with biological systems compounds the problem. Research to date has not resolved these difficulties, but it has helped to define the nature and scope of the problem and has provided directions for continuing research (Ref. 1.8.4). Only intensive experimental study of continuous wave (CW) radiation at the proposed frequency of 2.45 GHz can reveal whether the SPS concept can be implemented safely (Ref. 1.8.1).
A data base for making an ecological assessment is virtually nonexistent at the present time. A wide range of information is needed concerning quantitative and qualitative responses of an ecosystem to microwave exposure. This information must be directly related to the type and level of exposure to be found at and beyond the rectenna site. Critical areas for which information is currently lacking include effects on the survival, behavior and reproduction of airborne biota and on crop productivity. The full impact of the effects of microwave radiation on ecosystems and human health will not be known until a determination of the spacial distribution and the field characteristics of the microwave beams from a multiplicity of SPS transmitters are known. Such parameters as the field distributions inside buildings or vehicles, the proximity to a rectenna site and the total number of orbiting transmitters and how they interact must be determined. Much of this work is being undertaken as part of this environment al assessment. 1.5 RESEARCH PLAN AND ALTERNATIVES A draft research plan and schedule has been generated (see Ref. 1.8.5) by a group of peers in the field of microwave biological effects. It lists generic areas to be addressed and specific tasks to be undertaken during the next three-year period and assigns a priority to the research. A network diagram which incorporates the thinking of Ref. 1.8.5 is shown in Appendix 1A. The research is typed depending upon whether it is prospective or retrospective in nature and is aggregated in the categories specified in the plan. Several sources have been important in developing the research plan for microwave ecological effects (Ref. 1.8.1 and Refs. 1.8.9-11). Of particular importance is the review of the biological effects of microwaves prepared at Pacific Northwest Laboratories (Ref. 1.8.1). As the most complete review of its type to date, it has helped establish research priorities. The siting document prepared by NASA (Ref. 1.8.9) has been useful and will continue to be so as mitigating strategies are developed.
1.6 PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT The state of knowledge dictates the preliminary assessment of the effect of SPS specific microwave radiation on health and ecology. In essence, the presently available information is too limited, contradictory, and incomplete to provide the requisite level of certainty which would permit an unqualified endorsement of the SPS concept. In this preliminary assessment, the values presented in Ref. 1.8.6 were used as proposed limits of exposure of humans. Maximum power density from a single SPS were taken from Ref. 1.8.7. These values are summarized in Table 1.1. 1.6.1 Effects on Public Health and Safety Public health and safety may be affected by the following factors: Table 1.1. Ranges and Limits of Power.Density for Microwave Exposure3 aSee Solar Power Satellite Baseline Review by MSFC-JSC, July 13, 1978
Chronic exposure to low levels of microwave radiation (<lmW/cm^) outside the rectenna exclusion zone. © Short term exposure to higher levels of microwave radiation, e.g., in transit through the main beam in aircraft. © Interaction with other biota of the ecosystem that are directly affected by the microwave radiation. The effects that may occur, their assumed impacts based on the existing state of knowledge, their qualitative probability and severity ratings, proposed future research and possible mitigation strategies are listed in Table 1.2. 1.6.2 Effects on the Health and Safety of the Terrestrial Worker The worker at the rectenna site will be exposed to both high and low levels of microwave radiation (^23 mW/cm^) during work periods. Exposures may be increased by a factor of 4 under the conditions of rectenna malfunction, e.g., mismatch of the terminal electrical load. Such increases in power density levels to ^100 mW/cm^ could induce pronounced thermal effects in an unprotected worker. The effects which may occur in the range 23-100 mW/cm^, their assumed impacts based on the existing state of knowledge, probability and severity ratings, proposed future research and possible mitigation strategies are listed in Table 1.3. 1.6.3 Effects on the Health and Safety of Space Workers Space workers will be exposed to both high and low levels of microwave radiation during a tour of duty in space. Since the worker will be in close proximity to the transmitting array it is possible that exposure in near field at a power density near 3500 mW/cm^ could occur. Diffraction of the fields at the edges of the transmitting array or the reflection of waves from local boundaries may also cause exposure of workers to fields in excess of ANSI* and guideline recommended limits listed in Table 1.1. Certain modes of failure in the microwave transmission systems, e.g., leakage from cracked waveguides, could cause locally unacceptable increases in power density. The effects which might occur in space, their assumed impacts based on the existing state of knowledge, their probability and severity ratings, American National Standards Institute, Standard C.95.4.
Table 1.2. Potential Effects of SPS MPTS on Public Health
Table 1*3. Potential Effect of the SPS MPTS on Occupational Health (Terrestrial and Space Workers)
proposed future research and possible mitigating strategies are listed in Table 1.3. 1.6.4 Effects on Ecosystems The rectenna site ecosystems may be affected by chronic exposure to microwave radiation levels of approximately 23 mW/cm^. Chronic levels of microwave radiation 1lmW/cm^ will be experienced outside the exclusion zone. Both high and low levels may produce effects. The possible effects, their assumed impacts based on the existing state of knowledge, their probability and severity ratings, proposed future research and possible mitigating strategies are listed in Table. 1.4. As a result of a review of the biological effects of microwave radiation (see Ref. 1.8.1) a decision has been made to study the effects of microwave radiation on airborne species that are expected to inhabit or pass through typical rectenna sites. Specific studies directed towards the impact on bees and birds are of the highest priority. Birds in flight are close to their thermal limit, and passing through the microwave beam may impose a sufficient additional thermal burden to be lethal. Furthermore, because birds apparently use the earth’s magnetic field as a navigational aid, the strong electromagnetic beam may disturb their navigation patterns. Bees are important because of their impact on the pollenization process and therefore on man’s food supply, and because they are similar to higher animals with respect to biochemical, physiological and behavioral characteristics. Bees are relatively easy to handle experimentally and have a short life cycle; therefore, they are attractive experimental subjects. 1.7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Studies of the dependence of microwave biological effects on the complexity of fields established in standard exposure systems will also be undertaken. These studies are high priority since they will provide a method of correlating effects obtained at low microwave intensities but using different exposure systems and will aid in the retrospective interpretation of existing literature. It will also aid in defining exposure .parameters for future experiments.
Table 1.4. Effects of the SPS MPTS on the Ecology
Table 1-4. (Cont'd)
Table 1-4. (Cont'd)
1.7.1 Public and Occupational Personnel Knowledge of the effects of long-term continuous exposure to the SPS microwave transmission frequency is required before deployment of the system. There are no data of this nature currently available, and the necessary experiments are lengthy and costly. Because these data cannot be obtained quickly, it is prudent to consider first the apparently valid effects already demonstrated in the literature. Re-examination of these results under likely SPS exposure conditions can be accomplished in a 2-3 year period and will provide useful information as to the likelihood of these effects being a serious problem for SPS, as well as provide information to use in the design of the long-term experiments. In addition, there are some areas in which no data exist but which can also be addressed in the short term (see Table 1.2). 1.7.2 Ecosystems SPS will require large areas of natural and man-altered ecosystems for rectenna sites. The ecological effects of long-term, low dose exposure to ecosystems cannot be accurately predicted at the present time. Even if the basic biological effects of such exposure were well known, prediction of ecological impact based on laboratory studies of individual organisms would be speculative. Basic ecological field research will be required to answer critical questions for SPS. The ecological research program will be a complex undertaking. In order to assure that all critical issues are addressed, a preliminary phase should be initiated. Phase I (through FY 80) will gather and assimilate data from various sources for the purpose of developing a subsequent research program which may be required after FY 80. The following task sequence is recommended to provide the required information. (1) Determine potential critical ecological issues relating to SPS, (2) Describe the level of knowledge that exists concerning the relationship of rectenna operation to ecological processes, (3) Define technological and ecological data gaps, and determine research needs, (4) Develop a computerized data base of technical
and ecological knowledge related to SPS that can incorporate new data as they become available. This information will be made available to organizations involved in SPS, (5) Define research priorities for use in determining allocation of research funds, and (6) Develop mitigation strategies or alternate siting patterns for areas that have potentially great impacts. 1.8 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS 1.8.1 Justesen, D.R., et al., Compilation and Assessment of Microwave Bioeffects, a Selective Review of Liter atur e on Biological Effects of Microwaves in Relation to the Satellite Power Sgstem, Pacific Northwest Laboratory Report (Final), PNL-2634/UC-41, Richland, Wash. (May 1978). 1.8.2 Newson, B.D., A Research Plan to Determine the Biological and Ecological Effects of the Satellite Power Sgstems' Energg Transmission bg Microwave Beans - Preliminarg Draft - Part II - Protocols, prepared under NASA Contract NAS2-9655 (1977). 1.8.3 Report of the Second Task Force for Research Planning in Health Sciences, Norton Nelson, Chairman, Human Health and the Environment - Some Research Needs, Department of Health Education and Welfare, Publication No. 77-1277 (1977). 1.8.4 McRee, D.I., Working Group Chairman, A Technical Review of the Biological Effects of Nonionizing Radiation. A Report to the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (May 15, 1978). 1.8.5 Recommendations for a Program Plan to Assess the Health and Ecological Impacts of Microwave Power Sgstem from a Satellite Power Sgstem draft, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (June 22, 1978). 1.8.6 Interim Environmental Guidelines for Satellite Power Sgstem Concept Development and Evaluation, Iteration 2, U.S. Dept, of Energy, Office of Energy Research, SPS Project Office, Washington, D.C. (June 1978). 1.8.7 Dickinson, R.M., Satellite Power Sgstem Microwave Subsgstem Impacts and Benefits, California Institute of Technology, Jet Propolusion Laboratory JPL 900-800 (September 28, 1977). 1.8.8 Initial Technical, Environmental, and Economic Evaluation of Space Solar Power Concepts, Vol. I - Summary and Vol. II - Detailed Report, NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, JSC 11568, (August 31, 1976). 1.8.9 Eberhard, A.W., Candidate Locations for SPS Rectifging Antennas, NASA, Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama, NASA IM-78146 (1977). 1.8.10 Rogers, L., Ecological Research Plan for the Satellite Power Station (SPS), Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Richland, Wash. (1978).
1.8.11 Olson, R.L., et al., An Approach to Solar Power Satellite Environmental Studies, Boeing Aerospace Company, Seattle, Wash. (1978). 1.8.12 Berman E., J.O. Kinn and H.B. Carter, Observation on Mouse Fetuses After Irradiation with 2^5 GHz Microwaves, Health Physics, 1978, in press. 1.8.13 Oscar, K. J., and T.D. Hawkins, Microwave Alteration of the Blood Brain Barrier System of Rats, Brain Research 726:281-293 (1977). 1.8.14 Albert E.N., Rever s ibil ity of Blood-Brain Barrier, 1977 International Symposium on the Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Waves, Airlie, Virginia, Oct. 30 - Nov. 4, 1977, Abstract book p. 166. 1.8.15 Gage, M. I., and W.M. Geyer, Inter action of Ambient Temperature and Microwave Power Density on Scheduled Control led Behavior in the Rat, 1978 International Union of Radio Science Symposium, Helsinki, Finland, July 31 - Aug. 8, 11978.
APPENDIX 1A MICROWAVE HEALTH AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS PROGRAM PLAN
Fig. 1A.1. Microwave Health and Ecological Effects Program Plan
1. Begin comparison of biological endpoints using unipath and multipath sources. 2. Begin bird lethality and navigation study. 3. Begin validation study of immunological/metaological effects. 4. Begin bee lethality and behavior study. 5. Begin histophathological study of changes in central nervous system. 6. Begin validation study of teratology in rodents. 7. Begin validation study of changes in behavior due to drug-microwave interaction. 8. Begin quality assurance on all biological studies - continuing. 9. Begin assembling and computerizing ecological data base. 10. Complete comparison of unipath and multipath sources. 11. Re-evaluate existing biological data in light of unipath-multipath study. 12. Complete bird study. 13. Complete immunology validation study and begin follow-up phase. 14. Complete follow-up phase of immunology/hematology study. 15. Complete bee study. 16. Complete CNS histopathology study. 17. Complete teratology validation study. 18. Complete behavioral validation study on drug-microwave interaction. 19. Complete assembly of ecological data base. 20. FY80 evaluation of health and ecological effects. 21. Initiate long-term and selected short-term animal exposures. 22. Initiate long-term exposure of ecological park. Key to Figure 1A.1
2 OTHER EFFECTS ON HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT
2.1 SCOPE This section deals with nonmicrowave effects of the SPS on health, safety, and the environment. This includes the following: • Terrestrial Operations Mining of raw materials Construction of terrestrial facilities Processing and fabrication of finished materials Transport of materials and equipment Ground station operations Flight operations • Space Operations Orbital transfer of material and personnel Construction of SPS arrays Operation of arrays Effects on the following are considered: General public Terrestrial workers Space workers Environment The effects include direct and indirect effects on health, the creation of safety-related problems, and effects on the environment. 2.2 METHODOLOGY The nature of effects of terrestrial operations dictates that they be treated in two ways. First, a number of the effects result from conventional processes that are used more extensively in the development of an SPS system (e.g., manufacture of steel). In these cases the assessment involves the evaluation of the incremental effects of an increased exposure to conventional hazards (e.g., increased public exposure to air pollution from steelmaking). Second, a number of impacts are unique to the SPS system (e.g., effects of prolonged weightlessness). In these cases the assessment involves the identification of the potential effects, an evaluation of their possibility of creating health, safety, and welfare problems, and a review of the research needed to establish the magnitude of the effects more conclusively.
2.3 CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS Figure 2.1 shows the cause and effect relationships for various portions of the SPS system as currently understood. There are a multitude of possible interactions, and only the major pathways have been identified. The Extraction, Processing, and Fabrication of Materials and Equipment activities result in impacts that are primarily conventional in nature; that is, the effects of air pollution generation, water pollution generation, land disturbance, and the like, are not unique to SPS deployment, but are common to all mining, construction, and manufacturing operations. The importance of considering these impacts as part of an SPS assessment comes from the need to evaluate the incremental effects caused by the SPS system requirements. This preliminary assessment will attempt to provide some very rough indications on the extent of the incremental impacts caused by the SPS deployment. The only significant exception to the conventional effects of these activities is the exposure to toxic materials that are unique to the SPS system. Some unusual materials will be involved in the manufacture of the solar arrays, and in the rocket propellants. As the assessment will show, there has been no systematic identification of the toxic materials involved, and a complete impact evaluation cannot be carried out at this time. The Transport of Materials and Equipment activities involve the logistics of moving the SPS supplies between mining sites, construction locations, manufacturing facilities, launch and recovery areas, and ground stations. Again, most of the impacts are conventional in nature, and the issue of interest is the incremental effect. Two unconventional and SPS-specific impacts are, however, significant. One is the exposure to toxic materials and the second is the potential for catastrophic accidents which results from the need to move large quantities of highly flammable and potentially explosive materials (e.g., liquid hydrogen, propellants, etc.). Although materials of this type are currently being transported, the increase in quantity for SPS use and the concentration of movement along selected transport corridors must be carefully assessed. The Ground Station Operation and Maintenance is of concern because of the high intensity, low frequency electromagnetic fields associated with the power distribution system. However low frequency field effects are common to all electrical power systems and are not unique to the SPS.
SPS TERRESTRIAL OPERATIONS Fig. 2.1. Cause and Effects Relationships for SPS Terrestrial Operations Extraction, Processing, Fabrication of Materials and Equipment Transport of Materials and _______Equipment_______ • Air Pollution Generation (vehicle exhausts) • Water Pollution Generation (spills) • Accidents (conventional, catastrophic ) • Toxic Materials Exposure Manufacturing • Air Pollution Generation (stack emis- s ions) • Water Pollution Generation (process effluents) • Solid Waste Generation • Safety Hazards • Toxic Materials Exposure • Noise Construction • Land Disturbance • Air Pollution Generation (fugitive dust) • Water Pollution Generation • Safety Hazards ________Mining______ • Land Disturbance (strip-mining, subsidence, spoil piles) • Air Pollution Generation (fugitive dust) • Water Pollution Generation (leaching, drainage modification) • Toxic Materials Exposure • Safety Hazards • Noise • Solid Waste Generation
SPS TERRESTRIAL OPERATIONS Fig. 2.1. (Cont’d) _____Launch____________ • Air Pollution Generation (vehicle exhaust, ground cloud) • Water Pollution Generation (launch pad cooling) • Noise (acoustic, sonic boom) • Launch Emergency (abort, off- trajectory failure) • Toxic Material Exposure • High Acceleration/ Deceleration • Ozone Depletion Recovery_______ • Water Pollution Generation (residual propellant spills, ablative material removal) • Noise (sonic boom) • Recovery Emergency • Toxic Material Exposure Ground Station (Rectenna Site) Operation and Maintenance___ High Intensity Electromagnetic Fields Flight Operations
The Launch and Recovery Operations are similar to those undertaken in current space program activities; however, the deployment of the SPS system will require significantly larger launch vehicles and a significant increase in launch and recovery activity. The effects of these increases must be evaluated. All of the SPS Space Operations result in effects about which there is limited information. Both the type of individual exposed to the space conditions (i.e., construction worker instead of astronaut) and the exposure pattern will be significantly different from current space program experience. This assessment includes some preliminary information on potential problems. 2.4 STATE OF KNOWLEDGE Many of the health and safety effects from deployment of an SPS system result from conventional processes as indicated above. There is, in general, a considerable volume of information about these conditions and the data required for impact evaluation are well documented. In these cases an assessment of the incremental effect of an SPS system over existing levels of activity must be made. In general, the state of knowledge about these incremental effects is not very far advanced because of the preliminary nature of the SPS system definition. Table 2.1 summarizes the state of knowledge of each of the effects. The references given should be considered as representative of the information available and are, by no means, an exhaustive compilation of the data. 2.5 RESEARCH PLAN AND ALTERNATIVES Appendix 2A gives a research plan for evaluating the health, safety, and environmental effects of an SPS system. 2.6 PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT The preliminary assessment is divided into an evaluation of the effects of the effects on the public, terrestrial workers, space workers, and the environment.
Table 2.1. State of Knowledge of SPS Effects Exclusive of Microwave Effects Group Effects Activities Involved State of Knowledge References Public Land Disturbance Effects Loss of Land Reduced property value Mining, Construction • Effects of mining, land reclamation potential under intensive study. 2. 8.29 Air Pollution Health Effects Respiratory disease Cardiovascular impairment Skin/eye irritation Mining, Construction, Manufacturing, Transport, Launch • Health effects of selected air pollutants well-documented from epidemiological and other studies. National standards established. 2.8.30 • Emission rates of selected pollutants well-documented. 2.8.37 • Atmospheric reactions and transport not completely understood. 2.8.38 • Launch exhaust emissions and ground cloud dispersion not completely understood. Recommended limits available. 2.8.39 Water Pollution Health Effects Intestinal disease Skin irritation Other ingestion effects Mining, Construction, Manufacturing, Transport, Launch, Recovery • Health effects of many water pollutants well documented. 2.8.40 0 Leaching into ground waters not clearly understood. e Effluents from manufacturing processes are known. 0 Water pollutants from transport, launch, recovery not completely known; estimated from other space program activities (i.e., shuttle). 2. 8.9 Noise Stress - psychological and physiological Launch, Recovery 0 Effects are known for both acoustic noise and sonic boom. Recommended standards are available. 2.8.42 Safety Hazards Accidental injury/ fatality Transport, Launch, Recovery 0 Conventional transport accident rates known. 2.8.41 0 Accident occurrence and extent of impact estimated for other space program activities (i.e., shuttle) but not for SPS. 2.8.9 Solid Waste Generation Effects Sanitation problems Mining, Manufacturing 0 Extensive data available. Toxic Materials Exposure Mining, Manufacturing, Transport, Launch, Recovery 0 Toxic materials involved in SPS not identified. 0 Some materials have well- documented health effects, others have little or none. High Intensity Electromagnetic Field Exposure Ground Station Operation 0 Effects unknown.
Table 2.1. (Cont'd) Group Effects Activities Involved State of Knowledge References Terrestrial Workers Occupational Air Pollution Health Effects Respiratory disease Cardiovascular impairment Skin/eye irritation Other occupational illness Mining, Construction, Manufacturing, Launch • Conventional occupational health effects well-documented. Threshold Limit Values established. 2.8.43 Water Pollution Effects Skin/eye irritation Occupational illness Manufacturing, Recovery (residual propellant spills, ablative material removal) • Extent of effects unknown. Noise Hearing impairment Stress-psychological and physiological Mining, Manufacturing, Launch • Noise effects available. Occupational exposure limits available for conventional act ivities. 2.8.42 Safety Hazards Accidental injury/ fatality Mining, Construction, Manufacturing, Transport, Launch, Recovery • Conventional occupational hazards and injury/fatality rates known. 2.8.7 « Incidence and extent of occupational accidents from catastrophic transport accident and launch and recovery emergencies not evaluated. Toxic Materials Exposure Mining, Manufacturing, Transport 9 Toxic materials involved in SPS not identified yet. High Intensity Electromagnetic Field Exposure Ground Station Operation 9 Effects unknown. Space Workers Prolonged Weightlessness Effects Motion Sickness Balance Calcium loss Muscle deterioration Hormone, fluid, electrolyte imbalances Anemia Cellular immunity changes Cardiovascular changes Orbital Transfer, Space Construction, Space Operat ion e Data available from other space program activities. Radiation Exposure Effects Cancer Genetic changes Cataracts Central nervous system damage Life shortening Orbital Transfer, Space Construction, Space Operat ion 9 Limited data available from other space program activities. System Emergencies Launch, Recovery, Orbital Transfer, Space Construction, Space Operat ion • No data available on projected occurrence and extent of SPS emergency conditions.
Table 2.1. (Cont'd) Group Effects Activities Involved State of Knowledge References Space Workers (Cont'd) Emergency Medical/Dental Problems Orbital Transfer, Space Construction, Space Operat ion • No data available on projected occurrence rate for SPS. High Acceleration/ Deceleration Effects Launch, Recovery e Some data available from other space program activities. Extra Vehicular Activity Hazards Accidental Injury/ Fatality Space Construction, Space Operation • No data available on projected SPS occurrence. Extended Confinement Psychological stress Space Construction, Space Operation • Some studies on confinement under other circumstances. Thermal Extremes Hypothermia Injury/fatality Space Construction, Space Operation • Data on effects on earth available. Plasma Arcing Space Construction, Space Operation • No data available. High Intensity Electromagnetic Field Exposure Space Operation • Effects to be investigated. Ecology Air Pollution Ecological Ef feets Mining, Manufacturing, Construction, Launch, Transport • Gross effects of selected pollutants are known and documented. Dose response of vegetation is poorly understood. Long term low dose, widespread ecological effects not known. 2.8.26 Water Pollution Ecological Effects Mining, Manufacturing, Construct ion • Effects of many pollutants on aquatic ecosystems well known; may range from insignificant to severe. 2.8.23 2.8.24 Solid Waste Ecological Mining, Manufacturing • Gross effects known and documented. Includes leaching of toxic chemicals from waste piles. 2.8.22 Land Use Mining, Manufacturing, Construction, Launch Sites, Transport, Rectenna Siting, Power Distribution System • Land use changes known and documented for selected activities. Some constraint predictions dependent on system definition. Wildlife attraction to rectenna site appears probable for some species but no documentation exists. 2.8.25 Noise Launch, Recovery • Very little information concerning effects on animals; information on ecological impact is lacking. 2.8.9 Reflected Light Plant & animal cycles changed by reflected light Space Operations • Much is known about influence of light on biological cycles. Current SPS system definition information insufficient to predict effect. 2.8.28 High Intensity Electromagnetic Field Exposure Ground Station Operation • Effects to be investigated.
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