The potential hazards of microwave radiation beamed to Earth from geostationary orbital level unquestionably will be very carefully assessed prior to a final policy commitment in favor of a SPS. The environmental issues will be measured not only in terms of the safety standards and limitations of solar energy but also will be compared with the environmental issues posed by alternative energy sources. In examining policy issues relating to such modest uses of solar energy as those permitting the "retail" heating of homes and office buildings, as contrasted with the "wholesale" supply of energy from a SPS, the Commission on Environmental Quality has stated: Necessarily there are uncertainties about technologies that are under development, but research and development efforts on all new sources can be planned so that the control of pollutants and other impacts is an integral part of R&D. Judged on environmental effects, solar technologies appear the least threatening of emerging alternatives although the impacts of large- scale solar electric powerplants are uncertain. In any case, the environmental effects of most solar technologies appear minor compared with known effects of coal and nuclear power.12 5.3 Efforts to Establish Protective Standards: Institutions Following the scientific discovery in the 19th century that ionizing radiation produced biological effects, scientific societies established protective standards. At the First and Second International Congresses of Radiology in 1925 and 1928 two commissions were established, namely, the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU) and the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). The Environmental Quality, The Eighth Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Quality, p. 276, 1977.
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