far too optimistic for full implementation to be achieved by 2015. Although the programme shows different phases overlapping, the spending is spread out in time. The peak spending times on the four phases of the suggested programme are around 1997, 2002, 2007 and 2011. This is very suggestive of the Soviet 5-year plan structure, with each phase dedicated to sequential budgets. A timespan of five years each would be reasonable for the implementation of the first three phases, i.e. transport infrastructure build up, illumination of the ground from space, and energy retransmission. However, five years is too short a time for the creation of a solar power satellite system. Thus we are confronted with the paradox of numerous Soviet statements of their intention to derive energy from space for use on the ground, but with an apparently unrealistic timescale and an apparently inadequate launch capacity to carry this final phase to completion. The resolution of this paradox lies in the interpretation of the Soviet plans for the final phase. Rather than adopting the ‘unrealistic' approach of photovoltaic solar power stations, the Soviet approach is via another method. Sarkisjan and colleagues note that the energy system complexes to be developed in the final phase will be characterized by “specialized orbital systems, 20-40 orbital objects in one system, a great variety of orbital systems... ”, Consideration of such an obital energy complex, in conjunction with other Soviet work not reviewed here, suggests possible solutions to the utilization of energy from space, not based upon conventional solar power satellites. 4. The New Soviet Space Transportation System The key to the successful exploitation of space is transportation. One can no more consider a mature and independent programme of space exploitation without a launching capability than one could consider a navy without ships. All SPS studies so
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