development had extended this original Soviet vehicle to a capability which leaves it still in active use today.) 1. INTENTIONS PUBLISHED BEFOREHAND BUT MISUNDERSTOOD AND DISCOUNTED BY WEST 2. TYPE OF LAUNCH VEHICLE USED STILL IN OPERATION WITH OVER 1000 LAUNCHES SINCE 1957 (KNOWN AS ‘OLD FAITHFUL' BY COSMONAUTS) Fig. 1. Sputnik 1 as an Indicator of Soviet Methods. The American response, as we are all aware, was magnificent (Fig. 2). From the 1957 ‘shock' they landed a man on the Moon 12 years later, with no apparent Soviet competitor in sight. A range of launch vehicles derived from the three major US weapons systems of Thor, Atlas and Titan have served all of their requirements up to 1981, when the Shuttle appeared, and, in part, beyond that date. 1. MAN ON MOON BY 1969 2. CAPABILITY FOR SCIENCE MISSIONS TO PLANETS ESTABLISHED 3. CAPABILITY FOR COMSATS ESTABLISHED 4. AWARENESS OF MILITARY STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF SPACE 5. CONTINUING PUBLIC ASSOCIATION OF SPACE WITH NATIONAL PRIDE 6. CAPABILITY FOR MANNED SPACED FLIGHT OUTSIDE LEO NOW NO LONGER EXISTS Fig. 2. Sputnik 1: Effect on USA as an Indicator of USA Space Capabilities. The level of the US technology response can be judged by the Voyager II success. Launched by this technology in 1977, we have just received its report from Uranus before heading for Neptune. In summary: Historically, Soviet activity has goaded the USA into a huge space presence and Europe has limped behind. (Particularly since an early and very promising British presence was unprofessionally pulled out leaving the French holding the European launcher ‘baby'. It is hoped by the author that the offer to ‘Europeanize' HOTOL will be seen as making amends for this ‘dastardly' act!) The Soviets have maintained a steadily evolving programme, developing their hardware and accumulating experience. The same is true of the USA. However the USA has characteristically produced hardware for specific tasks, eg lunar landing, and then discarded it and the capability when the task has been accomplished. We know that the USSR had a large launch vehicle in development at the same time as the USA, ie the TT5 or G vehicle, for their manned lunar programme. We also know that it was a disastrous programme. The main vehicle failed its test flight. Whilst all the associated hardware worked, and has been retained, the vehicle did not. Therefore, characteristically, the Soviets have preserved the successful parts of their early programme and replanned those which failed. The Situation at Present In the 1970s the USA decided that it was necessary to reduce transportation costs to
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