LEO and began development of the Space Shuttle. This was, apparently, a return to the astronautics as seen by the pioneers, away from weapons-type technology. A large element of hardware reuse was called for, as well as a system capable of replacing all but the smallest of the USA's expendable vehicles. This vehicle first flew in 1981 and has demonstrated a new flexibility in space operations. However, its launch rate has been limited by teething problems and turnround time. It also has severe limitations due to too wide a requirements specification, which together with constraints imposed during its design/development phase, have resulted in very high turnround and launch costs. (The only fully expendable part of the system, the tank, although very expensive in its own right, represents only about a quarter of the launch costs.) Moreover, the Challenger disaster showed that the USA had become overconfident of its capability and the above mentioned problems are now increasingly exposed to view. The Soviet Union has maintained manned space stations virtually throughout and has accumulated a large number of trained astronauts with many hours of space flight experience. Although the USA has flown many astronauts they have flown only 1 space station (Skylab) and 3 crews. Analysis at CST indicates that the Soviet Union is achieving success in solving the necessary space biomedical problems and that this has given them in no small part the confidence to plan for space industrialization. On the European scene, the French, through ESA, have developed the Ariane series of launchers to capitalize on the deficiencies which exist in the US programme. This has, fortuitously, enabled Europe to compete for commercial satellite launches on the worldwide market against the USA. The lack of US capacity has helped this situation favourably. However, the scene is again set for change. In summary: The Soviet Union has consolidated its foothold via space stations and manned operations whilst the USA has attempted to develop flexible transportation, (Fig. 3). Europe, without significant financial or political input from the UK (up to now), has entered an aggressive phase of space commercial activity led by the French.
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