sponsor such studies may be put in an uncomfortable position if the results somehow reflect poorly on their managerial skills. Also, recommendations might be forthcoming that reduce managerial discretion. For example, results might suggest that a group of astronauts should work no more than eight hours a day, while the manager was hoping to assign them 12-hour shifts. Astronauts who allow themselves to be scrutinized risk not only the imposition of rules in formerly discretionary areas, but also disqualification from coveted missions. Funding poses further problems [14]. NASA has a relatively low budget given the scope of its responsibilities and operations. Considering the ‘hard science' background of many NASA officials, it is not surprising that the technical systems such as propulsion, spacecraft design, and basic life support are given top priority. Since work on these systems can consume as much money as is currently available, there is typically little or nothing left for ‘soft' research. Like other government agencies, NASA is dependent on Congress for funding. Any choices that NASA makes that somehow upsets Congress either directly or as a result of angry complaints from the public have the potential of leading to budget cuts [14], Choices that might anger the public include sponsoring research whose results violate the image of astronauts as societal exemplars, or direct attention to sexual behaviour, substance abuse, or other activities that might strike the public as sinful or deviant. There are many funding sources outside of the space agency itself that behavioural scientists could seek for support of space-related research which enhances space planning, management, and ‘livability' aloft. Opportunities for Anthropologists in Space Research From my perspective as a psychologist, there are many contributions anthropologists can make to the space programme. Anthropology can play a major role in understanding the human side of spaceflight: the methods, topics, and theories of anthropology promise to be strong complements to those of biologists, psychologists and sociologists. In some cases, anthropology's contributions may be unique. Additionally, as we shall see, there are reasons that space agencies might be more receptive to projects proposed by anthropologists than to projects proposed by professionals from related fields. Certainly, a major asset of anthropology is the participant observation method. In our past efforts to understand the psychological and social dimensions of spaceflight, we have drawn heavily from studies of space-analogous environments, such as submarines and polar camps. It is now time to gain data from space itself [17]. People in isolated and confined groups resent ‘freeloaders' or individuals with no useful function to perform, so the researcher who participates by simultaneously assuming a orthodox work role is likely to have an advantage [18], There are at least two major areas where anthropologists can make immediate substantive contributions. As an international endeavour, the space station is to be designed to accommodate the 95% man and the 95% woman: that is, 95% of the adults found in all of the lands of the world. Space habitats thus have to be designed for people of many different sizes and shapes. The task is complicated by the fact that people gain approximately one inch in height under conditions of weightlessness, and that posture is dramatically different in normal and in low gravity environments. Since space exploration and settlement are now recast as international endeavours, expertise in the management of cultural differences is another talent that can be put right to use. In addition to the joint Soviet-American mission of the early 1970s, each program has sponsored a number of ‘guest astronauts' from aligned countries, and
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