real and deserve close attention. At the same time, we should not lose sight of the fact that our activities in space also have salutary effects. Case histories from space and studies conducted in spaceflight-analogous environments suggest that there is a psychological "upside" as well as "downside" for those who brave extreme environments. Three intellectual forces have shaped present-day psychology, and it is the third of these - third force psychology - that helps us bring into focus the psychological benefits of spaceflight. The first two forces are psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Based on the work of Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis emphasizes inner mental conflicts and the role of the unconscious and is most applicable to psychopathology [9]. Behaviorism, associated most recently with B. F. Skinner, offers analyses based on antecedents (stimulus conditions), behaviors (responses), and consequences (patterns of reinforcement). From behaviorism flows a highly sophisticated and effective technology which made it possible to control the behavior of Ham, the chimpanzee that preceded the first astronaut into space, and may also make it possible to determine the performance of tomorrow's spacefarers [20], Associated with Abraham Maslow [21-23] and Carl Rogers [24-25], third force or humanistic psychology differs from its predecessors in several significant ways. First, whereas psychoanalysis focusses on unconscious mental conflicts, and behaviorism on objective behaviors, third force psychology highlights conscious experience. From this phenomenological perspective, subjective experiences are important both in their own right, and because they mediate between objective reality and behavior. Second, whereas psychoanalysis views people as controlled by unconscious mental forces, and behaviorism sees people as passively responding to environmental events, third force psychology stresses people's positive, striving nature. Less strictly deterministic than the other approaches, third force psychology casts people as active organisms that seek challenges and engage in activities for their own sake. Finally, whereas psychoanalysts generally view people as patients to be cured and behaviorists tend to see people as organisms to condition, third force psychologists see people as responsible in large measure for their own conduct. As a result, the psychologist and client are allies who together effect constructive change. There are many other differences among the three approaches, but third force psychology's emphasis on phenomenology, upbeat view of motivation, and conviction that people help create their own destiny are among the keys for understanding the positive side of life in space. Positive Psychological Responses to Spaceflight Conditions If we listen to the astronauts themselves, we find many who stress the joys of spaceflight. Recently, Frank White explored the views of about two dozen astronauts and cosmonauts [26]. These spacefarers admitted to difficulties and problems in space, but the overall tenor of their reports is positive. Despite occasional disorientation and even space sickness, weightlessness was frequently described as fun and even euphoric. Spacefarers tended to dwell on the significance and importance of their work; described their experiences as highly meaningful; and
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