If there are positive as well as negative psychological effects, why accentuate the negative? Certainly, the need to minimize the losses that could occur as a result of diminishing capacity, dwindling motivation, emotional instability, and social conflict provides strong justification. Even third force psychologists such as Abraham Maslow would agree that the first requirement is to overcome deficits, preserve life, and prevent disaster. However, there may be some less compelling reasons for exaggerating the downside of life in isolation and confinement: expectations may have been set in the earliest and most dangerous days of polar exploration; expedition leaders may have found that stressing their valor, derring-do and masochism loosened the purse-strings of potential sponsors; and authors may have found that books stressing loneliness, depression, and mayhem sold better than those stressing self-actualization and improved health! Selective attention and memory may also play a role, since it is well established that people are more attentive to negatively-toned than positively-toned reports [67], Compared to psychoanalysts and behaviorists, third force psychologists may be less daunted by the prospects of preparing crews for space. Third force psychologists view astronauts as their allies, as tough, resourceful, self-directed individuals who are capable of bettering their own lot. From the third force perspective, deprivations and hardships can be offset by challenging, involving activities and stress can be alleviated by the development of coping strategies. Rather than trying to rigidly control the astronaut's environment, psychologists should help establish conditions so that astronauts can take care of themselves. As allies, astronauts must retain a major voice in the planning process [27,59], We can expect astronauts, especially experienced astronauts, to make good guesses as to practical and impractical workloads, and we can expect them to arrange tasks in ways that will be interesting and involving. Furthermore, we can expect astronauts to be more committed to carrying out plans that they helped devise, as compared to plans imposed upon them from above. Indeed, Collins considers extensive consultation one of the four factors leading to the success of the Apollo program (others were clear goals, ample resources, and contingency planning). Apollo team members were expected to voice their views as clearly as possible, and as strongly as they desired - but also to abide by final decisions [27], The picture that emerges of life in space will depend upon the questions that are asked. To achieve a comprehensive view we must not only explore stress and pathology but also personal growth, self-actualization, the forging of strong interpersonal relations, and other positive aspects. It is also important to continue research after the completion of the mission proper, for experiences in isolation and confinement may yield "sleeper" effects which gain prominence long after the mission [37], Only on the basis of a comprehensive picture will we be able to properly select, train, and support the men and women who will press the human cause in space.
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