qualitatively novel developments. Reviews of nuclear propulsion systems in the late 1980's centered on technology developed in the 1960s, which was evaluated in comparison with other concepts of more elderly vintage. And much of today's technical debate is a rehearsal of long-established positions. Many of the leading figures in space nuclear technology came to the field early in their careers, and have remained active in the field since. Thus there is a striking coincidence of the history of space reactors and the biography of space nuclear technologists. While it may be less than apparent to the novice or the uninitiated, the aerospace nuclear field today is enriched by an unusual wealth of accumulated personal experience and insight. For nearly three decades, aerospace nuclear propulsion has been a capability in search of a mission. Despite the nearly $10 billion (in 1992 constant dollars) invested over this period, resulting in major capability demonstrations, the promises of aerospace nuclear propulsion remained unrealized. Rather, past decades have witnessed repeated episodes in which aerospace nuclear propulsion projects are initiated and development and testing takes place, only to be followed by growing doubts about the merit or utility of the proposed applications, leading ultimately to the project's demise. Undaunted by their disappointment, the members of the aerospace nuclear propulsion community have invariably found a new focus for their energies, only to see the cycle repeated. Prior to the First World War, the early pioneers of space flight, such as Goddard and Tsiolkovsky, were quick to recognize the potential applications of nuclear power to astronautics. Frustrated by the meager performance of existing propellants, and intimidated by the practical challenges confronting application of more powerful chemical propellants, the energy locked in the atomic nucleus seemed to be the key to unlocking the gates barring human access to the heavens. But prior to the Second World War, the energy of the atom remained locked away from human use. The realization of the potential for fission reactions on the eve of the Second World War soon led to speculation on how this new-found source of energy could be put to use. Although atomic bombs and radiological weapons topped the list, workers in America, Britain, and particularly Germany, quickly realized that fission reactors could be used to generate thermal and electrical power. Nuclear Powered Submarines It was but a short step to the contemplation of how fission reactors could be used to power submarines. Indeed, in wartime Germany, engaged in an intense submarine campaign in the Atlantic, nuclear-powered submarines seemed perhaps the most attractive application of atomic energy. And less than a decade after the War's end, the commander of the first atomic submarine, the Nautilus, would dispatch the historic signal "Underway on nuclear power."
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